The Mental Health Crisis of the COVID-19 Pandemic
By Aditi Venkatesh, Cognitive Science ‘21
Author’s Note: I wrote this piece for a UWP 104E assignment to explain the psychological consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic. I chose to focus on mental health because it holds personal value to me and addresses an often overlooked aspect of this pandemic. I support the creation of more accessible mental health services and hope to encourage people to reflect on their own mental well-being during these unprecedented times.
Recall your life just a few months ago. Hanging out with friends at a restaurant. Working in an office and chatting with coworkers. Sitting in a classroom with hundreds of classmates. Visiting family members. Buying groceries without worrying about wiping everything down. Going for a walk with neighbors.
Now, life looks a lot different. Zoom meetings all the time. FaceTime calls just to talk to friends and family. Paranoia about whether masks and gloves are covering your face and hands properly. Constantly checking social media for news. Using laptops every hour to communicate with classmates, coworkers, teachers, and pretty much anyone. The same routine repeated over and over again.
Undoubtedly, the COVID-19 pandemic has created a much different world. The consequences of this pandemic are primarily examined from a medical and economic perspective, but more attention needs to be brought to the psychological impacts of this pandemic. Mental health disorders have become increasingly prevalent in society; data from Active Minds, a mental health awareness organization, states that 50% of the United States population will experience a mental health condition at some point during their lifetime [1]. These statistics become even more concerning for young adults, with 75% of all cases of mental health issues beginning by the age of 24 [1]. With new layers of stress, anxiety, and isolation stemming from the pandemic, mental health issues are more widespread than before. Through the remainder of this piece, I will articulate outcomes of COVID-19 including the general effect of a pandemic on mental health, specifically focusing on younger populations at risk for anxiety and depression. I discuss alternative positive outcomes in people who normally thrive in times of limited social interaction and contrast this with the harmful impact of drastic isolation. I examine the benefits and consequences of increased technology use during COVID-19. Lastly, I have provided a few helpful mental health resources for students, and I urge everyone to assess their own mental health during these difficult times and advocate for better mental health services.
The coronavirus pandemic has created a mental health crisis across the world. Quarantining and shelter-in-place guidelines have isolated most people from family and friends, reduced social interactions drastically, and disrupted normal interpersonal interaction as shown in Figure 1 below, with data collected by the Kaiser Family Foundation towards the end of March 2020 [2]. People were already experiencing negative impacts on their mental health at the onset of the pandemic in early March, so undoubtedly, the duration of quarantine has exacerbated prior conditions. Individuals who are practicing shelter-in-place were more likely to report feeling mild or severe negative impacts on mental health than those who are not sheltering-in-place. Negative impacts include stress, anxiety, and general disruptions to life such as job loss, isolation, and income insecurity. These effects are particularly noticeable in individuals that were already at a higher risk for depression prior to the pandemic: younger adolescents, frontline healthcare workers, and individuals with chronic illnesses.
Figure 1:
Considering the isolation that comes with quarantining, we must recognize that levels of interpersonal dependence produce key vulnerabilities to depression and other comorbid mental health disorders. How much we depend on other relationships has strong implications on support systems, coping mechanisms to mental health issues, and willingness to seek treatment [3]. Prior research on psychosocial risk factors has shown that sociotropy and autonomy are two personality traits that predict depression. Sociotropy is the reliance on interpersonal relationships, while autonomy is related to independence and seeking self-control. A 2018 study conducted by Otani, et al. at the Yamagata School of Medicine in Japan found that sociotropy was associated with negative beliefs about oneself, but autonomy was associated with negative beliefs about others and short-lived positive beliefs about oneself [4]. These results highlight that dependence on others and an imbalance of self-esteem can be linked to depression. Since quarantining creates isolation, this isolation leads to an increased tendency to contemplate and overthink negative core beliefs about oneself, resulting in lower levels of confidence and self-esteem. We should be aware that certain personality traits are more vulnerable to depression during this pandemic and mental health needs to be prioritized more than ever before. However, one might wonder if autonomous individuals are thriving during this pandemic, since there is undoubtedly less social interaction than normal. For example, imagine a student that has mild social anxiety and does not enjoy their large classes in school. They might be relieved because they don’t have to have lengthy conversations with classmates and can independently complete their work. This very well may be the case for certain individuals. Previous studies have shown that autonomy can cultivate creativity, and introversion has been closely linked with autonomous tendencies [5]. Individuals that typically thrive in solitude and focus on hobbies, jobs, and other passions may find comfort in having more time to themselves due to COVID-19. Alternatively, extremely high levels of autonomy, such as complete disconnection from family and friends can be a factor that contributes to depression. This stresses the fact that a majority of individuals need some level of healthy social interaction to have a balanced life.
Despite the finding of a correlation between isolation and depression, since the onset of the pandemic, people are finding creative ways to socially interact and combat the loneliness COVID-19 has created. Many folks schedule weekly or monthly calls with family and friends to catch up. Organizations are holding virtual discussions about mental health and ways to practice self-care. Students across the world are creating online board games and holding virtual game nights.
However even with these alleviating factors, the magnitude and ongoing duration of the pandemic’s restrictions continue to foster unusually high levels of loneliness. Students who may have participated in many extracurricular activities (which are now canceled), can’t talk to their friends as much, feel out of the loop in their lives, and struggle to find ways to spend their free time. Loneliness is one feeling that can contribute to depression and anxiety. In Figure 2, among data collected by Healthline through a YouGov COVID-19 Tracker during April 2020, the age group most affected by depression and anxiety (33%) was adults younger than 35 years old [6]. Additionally, this younger population showed an increase of anxiety and depression over a two-week span from April 12th to April 26th. Lastly, 45% of the U.S. population tested showed anxiety and depression PHQ-4 values out of the normal range [6]. However, older populations reported a plateau or slight reduction, which may be due to less dramatic lifestyle changes or less technology use compared to younger generations. This is significant because it illustrates that younger adults, which includes most students, disproportionately face worsened mental health.
Figure 2:
At the same time in China, researchers found similar patterns of anxiety and depression and chose to analyze why this exacerbation was present in younger individuals. Many research studies in China, where the peak of COVID-19 has passed, are examining the psychological repercussions of the pandemic, with a focus on depression and anxiety. In a published study from April 2020, researchers in Wuhan, China measured that the prevalence of depression and anxiety in the general population was 35.1% and 20.1%, respectively [7]. Further analysis of the self-report questionnaire confirmed that individuals younger than 35 years old reported more severe symptoms of depression and anxiety. In fact, among the younger population, those that spent more than 3 hours per day thinking about the pandemic faced more severe anxiety than those that spent 0-2 hours. This result highlights that in addition to actual lifestyle changes, thoughts about COVID-19 induces anxiety in young populations. This begs the question, why are younger people thinking about COVID-19 more than older people?
The answer is technology. Even though everyone uses technology, younger ages rely on technology more, especially for school and interacting with friends. Of course, technology is not all bad. In fact, society is most likely only able to function during this pandemic due to advancements like video conferencing, telemedicine, and online social groups. However, another study conducted in Wuhan, China explored the use of social media during the recovery interventions placed after the peak of COVID-19 [8]. Researchers found that social media support groups slightly reduced depression. But more significantly, adults that spent more than 2 hours on COVID-19 news on social media had increased anxiety and depression. Another study in Chicago in May 2020 explored the role of mainstream media in coronavirus news and depression. Researchers found that greater exposure to COVID-19 news, through cable news channels like CNN, local news channels, and the New York Times, led to higher perceived vulnerability to COVID-19, and this was strongly correlated with depressive symptoms [9]. Social media and mainstream media sources can both produce an undue burden on individuals through a barrage of stressful information about COVID-19 and lead to greater anxiety and depression.
Another form of technology, while useful for work and school, has unintended negative consequences: video conferencing. People have started to refer to these downsides as “Zoom fatigue” [10]. Zoom fatigue is the phenomenon where people are more tired and stressed with online meetings compared to in-person ones. I am sure many readers have experienced the similar stresses of looking presentable, awkward silences when nobody is speaking, and simply, less fun meetings. During Zoom meetings, it is difficult to discern normal social cues, such as body language and eye contact, over a video. This nonverbal communication is crucial to making conversations run smoothly. Removal of many social cues makes video calls feel impersonal. It can make even a catch-up video call to your best friend seem stressful. Additionally, previous research has shown that when responding online, even delays of up to 1.2 seconds can make a person seem unfocused and unfriendly [10]. These slight technological delays can dramatically contribute to greater stress and anxiety. Zoom fatigue can be especially taxing on younger populations that are still in school and are constantly in and out of Zoom meetings for courses.
As the COVID-19 pandemic continues, society finds itself at crossroads. How do we balance the positive and negative impacts of the technology use? Obviously, we cannot simply get rid of Zoom meetings and online classes; however, this pandemic gives us a crucial opportunity to expand online mental health services. Past research on mental health effects during the 2003 SARS epidemic in China showed similar prevalence of worsened mental health, with 48% of the participants reporting deteriorated mental health because of the SARS epidemic through anxiety and depression; this is very similar to the 47% found in the 2020 KFF study [11, 2]. If mental health issues are just as exacerbated in our pandemic 15 years later even with greater technological advancements, it accentuates the disparities in accessible online mental health care. Increasing virtual therapy appointments, online support groups, and videos for stress-relieving techniques like meditation, breathing exercises, and self-reflection are some starting points.
A CDC study conducted in June 2020, several months following the onset of the pandemic, found that people aged 18-24 years still face the highest prevalence of mental health conditions [12]. However, 30.9% of all participants showed anxiety and depression symptoms above normal PHQ-4 measurements; this illustrates a reduction compared to the finding of 45% measured in the April 2020 Healthline survey [12, 6]. Most importantly, I hope this shows that things are getting better. I especially encourage all readers to reflect on how to better take care of their own mental health. It is so important to practice self-care, which can be different for everyone! This can be exercising, seeing a therapist, hanging out with friends, getting more sleep, or setting boundaries for your own capabilities. It’s okay to prioritize your mental health when things get overwhelming. Therapy can be helpful for some folks, so here are some resources to be aware of. Student Health and Counseling Services offers on-campus counseling appointments for students (call (530) 732-0871 or visit hem.ucdavis.edu to schedule). Free tele-mental health and online counseling appointments are offered through Therapy Assistance Online (visit taoconnect.org and sign up with your UC Davis email). Text RELATE to 741741 to chat live with a crisis counselor, available 24/7 through the Crisis Text Line. Lean on your support systems and know that you are not alone! Mental health is just as important as your physical health. I hope we can take this time to acknowledge the mental health crisis this pandemic has created by improving available mental health services and making mental healthcare more accessible for at-risk populations.
References
- Statistics. (2020, June 24). Retrieved August 07, 2020, from https://www.activeminds.org/about-mental-health/statistics/
- Panchal, N., Kamal, R., Orgera, K., Cox, C. F., Garfield, R., Hamel, L., Muñana, C., & Chidambaram, P. (2020, April 21). The Implications of COVID-19 for Mental Health and Substance Use. Retrieved from https://www.kff.org/coronavirus-covid-19/issue-brief/the-implications-of-covid-19-for-mental-health-and-substance-use/
- Meissner, B. L., & Bantjes, J. (2017). Disconnection, reconnection and autonomy: four young South African men’s experience of attempting suicide. Journal of Youth Studies, 20(7), 781–797. doi: 10.1080/13676261.2016.1273512
- Otani, K., Suzuki, A., Matsumoto, Y., & Shirata, T. (2018). Marked differences in core beliefs about self and others, between sociotropy and autonomy: Personality vulnerabilities in the cognitive model of depression. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 14, 863–866. doi: 10.2147/ndt.s161541
- Runco, M. A., & Pritzker, S. R. (1999). Encyclopedia of creativity. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
- Healthline Mental Health Index: Week of April 26 – U.S. Population. (2020, May 14). Retrieved from https://www.healthline.com/press/healthline-mental-health-index-week-of-april-26-u-s-population
- Huang, Y., & Zhao, N. (2020). Mental health burden for the public affected by the COVID-19 outbreak in China: Who will be the high-risk group? Psychology, Health & Medicine, 1-12. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1080/13548506.2020.1754438
- Ni, M. Y., Yang, L., Leung, C., Li, N., Yao, X. I., Wang, Y., Leung, G. M., Cowling, B. J., & Liao, Q. (2020). Mental Health, Risk Factors, and Social Media Use During the COVID-19 Epidemic and Cordon Sanitaire Among the Community and Health Professionals in Wuhan, China: Cross-Sectional Survey. JMIR Mental Health, 7(5). doi: 10.2196/19009
- Olagoke, A. A., Olagoke, O. O., & Hughes, A. M. (2020). Exposure to coronavirus news on mainstream media: The role of risk perceptions and depression. British Journal of Health Psychology. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1111/bjhp.12427
- Sander, L., & Bauman, O. (2020, May 22). Zoom fatigue is real – here’s why video calls are so draining. Retrieved from https://ideas.ted.com/zoom-fatigue-is-real-heres-why-video-calls-are-so-draining/
- Lau, J. T., Yang, X., Pang, E., Tsui, H. Y., Wong, E., & Wing, Y. K. (2005). SARS-related perceptions in Hong Kong. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 11(3), 417–424. doi: 0.3201/eid1103.040675
- Czeisler, M. É., Lane, R. I., Petrosky, E., Wiley, J. F., Christensen, A., Njai, R., Weaver, M. D., Robbins, R., Facer-Childs, E. R., Barger, L. K., Czeisler, C. A., Howard, M. E., & Rajaratnam, S. M.W. (2020, August 13). Mental Health, Substance Use, and Suicidal Ideation During the COVID-19 Pandemic — United States, June 24-30, 2020. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 2020, 69, 1049–1057. doi: 10.15585/mmwr.mm6932a1
Fold@Home: Aid in COVID-19 Research from Home
Image via Folding@Home
By Nathan Levinzon, Neurobiology, Physiology, and Behavior ‘23
Author’s Note: The purpose of this article is to introduce and inform the UC Davis scientific community of Folding@Home; a distributed computing project that allows individuals and researchers to donate computing resources from their computers towards COVID-19 research.
Keywords: COVID-19, Folding@Home, Distributed Computing
Reports of localized viral pneumonia cases in the Chinese city of Wuhan began in December 2019, initially amounting to little concern for humanity. Since then, the world has drastically changed as a result of COVID-19. As of September 16, 2020, almost thirty million cases of COVID-19 have been confirmed across the globe, claiming the lives of close to one million individuals. In California alone, there have been seven hundred seventy thousand cases with close to twenty three thousand deaths as of September 28th [1]. Millions of individuals are currently under a government-mandated shelter-in-place order, forcing the lives of many to come to a standstill. In a statement made by UC Davis Chancellor May in March of this year, “much of [UC Davis’] research is ramping down, but when it comes to the coronavirus, our efforts continue apace” [2]. One such effort taking place at UC Davis is called Folding@Home (FAH), and it allows researchers to study the mechanisms of COVID-19 with nothing but a computer.
FAH originated as a project to study how protein structures interact with their environment. Currently, some proteins of particular interest to FAH are the constituents of the virus that causes COVID-19. Like other coronaviruses, SARS-CoV-2 has four types of proteins: the spike, envelope, membrane, and nucleocapsid proteins. Many copies of the spike protein protrude from the surface of the virus, where they wait to encounter Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 (ACE2) on the surface of human cells [3]. In order to develop therapeutic antibodies or small molecules for the treatment of COVID-19, scientists need to better understand the structure of the viral spike protein and how it binds to the human enzymes required for viral entry into the cells. Before the spike proteins on SARS-CoV-2 can function, they must first take on a particular structure, known as a ‘conformation’, through a process known as “protein folding.” As a result of the many factors that impact protein folding, like electrostatic interaction, especially the electrostatic interactions between amino acids and their environment, research into therapeutics against COVID-19 first necessitates intensive computation in order to resolve protein structure [4]. Only after the proteins of SARS-CoV-2 are understood can the hunt for a cure begin.
FAH is able to study the complex phenomena of protein folding thanks to the computational power of distributed computing. A distributed computing project is a piece of software that allows volunteers to “donate” computing time from the Central Processing Units (CPUs) and Graphics Processing Units (GPUs) located in their personal computers towards solving problems that require significant computing power, like protein folding. In essence, FAH uses a personal computer’s computational resources while the computer is idle to perform calculations involving protein folding. This donated computing power is what forms the “nodes” within a greater cluster of other computers in a process known as “cluster computing.” FAH uses the cluster’s resources to run complex biophysical computer simulations in order to understand the complexities and outcomes of protein folding [5]. In this way, FAH brings together citizen scientists who volunteer to run simulations of protein dynamics on their personal computers.
Studying protein folding via distributed computing has humble beginnings but has grown into a technology that has the potential to research even the most elusive proteins. First, established protein conformations are used by FAH as starting points for a set of simulation trajectories through a technique called ‘adaptive sampling.’ The theory behind adaptive sampling goes as follows: If a protein folds through the states A to B to C, researchers can calculate the length of the transition time between A and C by simulating the A to B transition and the B to C transition [6]. First, a computer simulates the initial conditions of a protein many times to determine the sample space of protein conformations. As the simulations discover more conformations, a Markov state model (MSM) is created and used to find the most dominant of protein conformations. The MSM represents a master equation framework: meaning that, in theory, the complete dynamics of a protein can be described using a single MSM [7]. The MSM method significantly increases the efficiency of simulation as it avoids unnecessary computation and allows for the statistical aggregation of short, independent simulation trajectories [8]. The amount of time it takes to construct an MSM is inversely proportional to the number of parallel simulations running, i.e., the number of CPUs and GPUs available [9]. At the end of computation, an aggregate final model of all the sample states is generated. This final model is able to illustrate folding events and dynamics of the protein, which researchers can use to study and discover potential binding sites for novel therapeutic compounds.
The power of FAH’s distributed computing in the hunt for a cure to COVID-19 grows with each computer on FAH’s network.ch citizen scientist who donates the power of their idle computer. Currently, pharmaceutical research in COVID-19 has been hindered by the fact that there are no obvious drug binding sites on the surface of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. This makes developing therapeutic remedies for COVID-19 a long, expensive process of ‘check and guess.’ However, there is promise: in the past, FAH’s simulations have captured motions in the proteins of the Ebola virus that create a potentially druggable site not otherwise observable[10]. Using the same methodology as they did for Ebola, FAH has now found similar events in the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 and hopes to use this result and future results to one day produce a life-saving treatment for COVID-19. By downloading Folding@Home and selecting to contribute to “Any Disease”, anyone can help provide FAH-affiliated researchers with the computational power required to tackle this worldwide epidemic. For more information, refer to https://foldingathome.org/start-folding/.
References
- Smith, M., White, J., Collins, K., McCann, A., & Wu, J. (2020, June 28). Tracking Every Coronavirus Case in the U.S.: Full Map. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/us/coronavirus-us-cases.html
- May, G. S. (2020, March 20). Update on Our Response to COVID-19. UC Davis Leadership. https://leadership.ucdavis.edu/news/messages/chancellor-messages/update-on-our-response-to-covid19-march-20
- Astuti, I., & Ysrafil. (2020). Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2): An overview of viral structure and host response. Diabetes & Metabolic Syndrome: Clinical Research & Reviews. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsx.2020.04.020
- Sarah Everts. (2017, July 31). Protein folding: Much more intricate than we thought | July 31, 2017 Issue – Vol. 95 Issue 31 | Chemical & Engineering News. Cen.Acs.Org. https://cen.acs.org/articles/95/i31/Protein-folding-Much-intricate-thought.html
- About – Folding@home. (n.d.). Folding@Home. Retrieved June 28, 2020, from https://foldingathome.org/about/
- Bowman, G. R., Voelz, V. A., & Pande, V. S. (2011). Taming the complexity of protein folding. Current Opinion in Structural Biology, 21(1), 4–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbi.2010.10.006
- Husic, B. E., & Pande, V. S. (2018). Markov State Models: From an Art to a Science. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 140(7), 2386–2396. https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.7b12191
- Sengupta, U., Carballo-Pacheco, M., & Strodel, B. (2019). Automated Markov state models for molecular dynamics simulations of aggregation and self-assembly. The Journal of Chemical Physics, 150(11), 115101. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5083915
- Stone, J. E., Phillips, J. C., Freddolino, P. L., Hardy, D. J., Trabuco, L. G., & Schulten, K. (2007). Accelerating molecular modeling applications with graphics processors. Journal of Computational Chemistry, 28(16), 2618–2640. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcc.20829
- Cruz, M. A., Frederick, T. E., Singh, S., Vithani, N., Zimmerman, M. I., Porter, J. R., Moeder, K. E., Amarasinghe, G. K., & Bowman, G. R. (2020). Discovery of a cryptic allosteric site in Ebola’s ‘undruggable’ VP35 protein using simulations and experiments. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.02.09.940510
Will This Pandemic Unite Us Against Climate Change?
By Pilar Ceniceroz, Environmental Science and Management ‘21
Author’s Note: I originally wrote this piece for a UWP104E assignment. However, the topic remains relevant to people all around the world. In the past, it has been hard to visualize our individual impacts on the environment. COVID-19 has become a great example of how behavioral changes can drastically transform our surroundings. I would like my readers to understand the power of unity in the face of what might be the next global crisis, climate change.
Introduction
After the World Health Organization (WHO) declared a global health emergency on January 30th 2020, the world has seen extreme changes as the daily lifestyle of almost everyone in the world has been rapidly altered [1]. The ongoing effort to slow the spread of the virus while sheltering-in-place has not been without sacrifice—countless people lost their jobs, most cannot physically go to school, and everyday activities have been significantly modified. However, this halt of “business as usual” has fascinating impacts on the environment. Stay-at-home orders shut down production in industrial facilities and power plants and minimized personal vehicle use [2]. With a major decrease in economic activity, highly polluted cities around the world are now seeing clearer skies. The seemingly dull, repetitive routine of quarantine life has allowed the environment to flourish.While consequences of COVID-19 include global economic devastation, the environment has seen both indirect positive and negative impacts as a result of stay-at-home orders and the declining economy. Regions with COVID-19 restrictions experienced a decrease in air and water pollution. These restrictions included a stop to nonessential work and travel as well as closing of restaurants and bars. Concurrently, the amount of single use products has significantly increased to limit the spread of the virus. Decreasing air pollution is a major milestone for our modern world, however, as the world returns to normal life, pollution levels will follow. Although a short term decrease in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is not a sustainable way to support the environment, communities around the globe have witnessed the instantaneous impacts of our everyday habits on the environment due to COVID-19.
Drop in Atmospheric and Water Pollution
Today, 91% of the world population lives in places where poor air quality exceeds the permissible limits set by the WHO [2]. Air quality is an important contributor to human health and living in an area with poor air quality can exacerbate the symptoms of COVID-19. According to the 2016 WHO report, air pollution contributes to 8% of total deaths in the world [2]. Countries that normally struggle with unhealthy air, such as China, USA, Italy, and Spain, have since seen clearer skies for the first time in decades after taking aggressive measures to slow the spread of the virus. There has been a dramatic decrease in the amount of CO2, NO2, and particulate matter emitted in China with the halt of industrial operations with the decrease in demand for coal and crude oil (see fig. 1) [3].
Changes in nitrogen dioxide emission levels in China from before and after lockdown.
Fig. 1. Zambrano-Monserrate, Manuel A., et al. “Indirect Effects of COVID-19 on the Environment.” Science of The Total Environment, vol. 728, 20 Apr. 2020, p. 138813., doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138813.
Since this same time last year, air pollution levels have dropped 50% in New York [1]. There has been a 25% decrease in air pollution since the start of this year in China, one of the largest manufacturing countries [1]. The closing of factories contributed to a 40% reduction in coal usage at one of China’s largest power plants [1]. The average coal consumption of power plants has reached its lowest point in the past four years [3]. Clearly, the outbreak has improved short term air quality and has contributed to reducing global carbon emissions. Fewer flights and social distancing guidelines have reduced carbon emissions as well as other forms of pollution. Tourism significantly decreased worldwide, and beaches around the world have been cleaned up. For example, citizens of Venice, Italy were amazed to see crystalline waters and healthy fish in their canals [1].
Comparison of air quality in some of the biggest cities around the world before the COVID-19 pandemic and while the lockdown.
Fig. 2. Saadat, Saeida., et al. “Environmental Perspective of COVID-19.” Science of The Total Environment, vol. 728, 22 April 2020, p. 138870., doi:10.1016/j.scitptenv.2020.139815.
Increased Single Use Plastics
In order to completely analyze the impact of COVID-19 on environmental health, the negative impacts on the environment from the virus are equally as important as the positive effects. Although travel restrictions have led to less pollution caused by tourism, the amount of single use plastics and medical equipment has significantly increased waste around the world. In the USA, there has been a significant increase in the amount of single-use personal protective equipment, such as masks and gloves [1].
Imagine the amount of trash created when millions of people use one or a couple of masks daily, single use gloves and hand sanitizers. With a population of eleven million people, the city of Wuhan produced an average of 200 tons of clinical trash on any single day in February 2020, compared to their previous average of fifty tons per day [1]. This number is four times the amount the city’s only dedicated facility can incinerate per day [1].
The demand for plastics has increased as consumers move to online purchasing. Shelter-in-place guidelines established in most countries have driven consumers to increase their demand for online orders and home delivery [2].The increasing demand for shipping and packaging greatly increases the amount of waste produced as well as GHG emissions with increased activity in supply lines. Out of concern of spreading the virus through the plastic surfaces in recycling centers, some cities stopped their recycling programs in the U.S. [2]. Additionally, in some of these cities, citizens are not allowed to use reusable bags at grocery stores. Similarly, some European cities have seen restrictions within waste management. Italy has prohibited infected residents from sorting their personal household waste [2]. Industries have repealed the disposable bag bans, many have switched to single-use packaging, and online food ordering has increased in popularity [2]. The consumption of single use plastics has skyrocketed to limit transmission [1, 3]. Suspension of sustainable waste management practices potentially escalate environmental pollution.
Medical wastes generated during COVID-19 pandemic in the environment.
Fig. 3. Saadat, Saeida., et al. “Environmental Perspective of COVID-19.” Science of The Total Environment, vol. 728, 22 April 2020, p. 138870., doi:10.1016/j.scitptenv.2020.139815.
Where Do We Go From Here?
Over the last few months, people were enamoured by the modern-day pollution that vanished before their eyes. Strict stay-at-home orders decreased the amount of air and water pollution in otherwise unhealthy cities. Contrarily, the considerable increase in single use plastics may have a lasting negative impact on the environment. Although these outcomes may be hard to compare in magnitude, they help put into perspective the larger picture. Short term change is not a sustainable way to clean up the environment especially when it occurs alongside economic devastation. Before the pandemic, individual action against climate change felt like an abstract idea, out of reach due to its lack of immediacy. Now, the world has seen changes to our environment from worldwide behavior. Visible skies and vibrant waterways are distinguishable changes that are legitimate grounds to build momentum and take action for a healthier future. Although the pandemic may not have a drastic impact on the future of the environment itself due to conflicting effects, it can instigate discussion to improve personal actions that impact the environment. Long-term structural change and individual behavior changes are critical in combating environmental pollution. Moving forward, it is imperative that the unification of collective conscious behavior be a driving force to combat climate change. If neglected, climate change is likely to take many lives in the future, portraying this pandemic as a minor devastation. Let the urgency of our united global response to COVID-19 influence our future response to the next global crisis; climate change.
References
[1] Saadat, Saeida., et al. “Environmental Perspective of COVID-19.” Science of The Total Environment, vol. 728, 22 April 2020, p. 138870., doi:10.1016/j.scitptenv.2020.139815.
[3] Wang, Qiang, and Min Su. “A Preliminary Assessment of the Impact of COVID-19 on Environment – A Case Study of China.” Science of The Total Environment, vol. 728, 22 Apr. 2020, p. 138915., doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138915.
[2] Zambrano-Monserrate, Manuel A., et al. “Indirect Effects of COVID-19 on the Environment.” Science of The Total Environment, vol. 728, 20 Apr. 2020, p. 138813., doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138813.
The Parable of the Passenger Pigeon: How Colonizers’ Words Killed the World’s Largest Bird Population
By Jenna Turpin, Wildlife, Fish, and Conservation Biology ‘22
Author’s Note: I started this piece as an assignment for my undergraduate expository writing class under the guidance of my supportive professor Hillary Cheramie. Hillary urged me to take my writing beyond her course. In May, I had the wonderful opportunity to share this research at the 2020 UC Davis Annual Undergraduate Research Conference. I want to continue to share my work through publication. I wrote this piece with the intention of inspiring both students and teachers. From this paper, students can learn the parable of the passenger pigeon and teachers can come to understand why teaching about the passenger pigeon matters.
I learned of the passenger pigeon during my first week of college at UC Davis. One of my professors, Dr. Kelt, explained a brief history of the passenger pigeon to my first-year wildlife ecology and conservation class. The lesson was about wildlife-human interactions and the destruction humans can execute on the environment. The passenger pigeon’s story shook me to my core. It was a disturbing portrayal of how people sometimes negatively shape ecosystems. For me, it reinforced all of the reasons I decided to study wildlife conservation. I want people who read this piece to feel the emotions I felt when I first took in the parable of the passenger pigeon and come to the belief that humans have a responsibility to conserve species through management, policy, and education. The more people who hear this parable, the more people who hold sympathy for our wildlife. It should be built into schools’ science and history curriculums. A greater understanding of the passenger pigeon will save future species from extinction.
Abstract
Genre is the literary process through which people collectively communicate about a topic. Applied to a species, genre helps us understand how society communicates about that animal. Species’ genres change over time as different people interact with them. This influences human-wildlife interactions and thus plays a critical role in determining the fate of that species. In the passenger pigeon’s (Ectopistes migratorius) prime, it was the most abundant bird species in existence but went extinct. The dynamics of human-wildlife interactions over time defined the progression of the passenger pigeon’s recorded history. These interactions varied based on how the dominant people in North America thought about the bird and the genre surrounding its existence. The parable of the passenger pigeon is a poignant example of why genre matters in preserving species and how this can go wrong. The analysis of the historical evolution of the passenger pigeon’s genre showed that the European colonization of North America is why these birds went extinct. I conducted a survey that showed that the passenger pigeon’s genre is fading among young people. Failing to spread the parable of the passenger pigeon is a threat to every currently endangered species and their respective genres.
Introduction
The passenger pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius) lived in North America and was described as having a “small head and neck, long tail, and beautiful plumage” [1]. In its prime, it had the largest population size of any bird species at the time but went extinct due to overexploitation and habitat loss caused by European settlers [1]. The dynamics of human-wildlife interactions over time defined the progression of the passenger pigeon’s recorded history.
These interactions varied based on how the dominant people in North America thought about the bird and the genre surrounding its existence. Genre refers to “repeating rhetorical situations” to aid human interaction. In other words, it is the collection of how people refer to a specific topic. The definition of genre can be applied broadly. Genres are dynamic and develop over time, as people face new situations to apply them to. Every species has its own genre surrounding its existence. People participate in many genres on a daily basis, even if they do not know it. Genre is a “social action,” people shape genres and genres shape people [2]. The way groups of people collectively feel about anything is communicated through language. Thus, looking at the way people talked about passenger pigeons explains the processes that led to their downfall. The passenger pigeon is an effective ambassador for teaching youth about conservation because of the population’ rapid decline.
Historical Evolution
Indigenous People
The passenger pigeon’s parable begins with Indigenous people who lived within the range of the bird, mostly covering only the Eastern half of America [1]. These Indigenous people were the first humans to interact with the passenger pigeon and create its genre. Simon Pokagon, a Potawatomi tribe member was interviewed about seeing them in flight: “When a young man I have stood for hours admiring the movements of these birds. I have seen them fly in unbroken lines from the horizon…” [3]. Under Indigenous peoples’ care, the passenger pigeon numbers rose beginning in the years 100 to 900 C.E. [4]. This was because Indigenous people and passenger pigeons had a well-balanced relationship that allowed both populations to thrive.
Indigenous people carefully interacted with the passenger pigeon because it was an important game bird to them, second only to the wild turkey [1]. The passenger pigeon was a staple food of the Seneca, who named the bird jah’gowa, meaning “big bread” [4]. Tribes followed specific procedures for hunting the birds. Almost all tribes had a strict policy—based in both religion and biology—against taking nesting adult passenger pigeons. This strategic wildlife management policy promoted chick survival by allowing parents to care for their young. The Sioux and the Iroquois League were among those known to enforce their rules on other hunters. Instead of hunting the birds during this time, they often used nests as an opportunity to closely observe the bird. Individual tribes also had additional policies. For the Ho Chunks, hunting of the passenger pigeon could only happen if the chief held a feast. When the birds returned in spring, they offered much needed seasonal food. Before the Seneca began the hunt, they monitored the nests until the chicks were two to three weeks old. The Seneca even went as far as managing the habitat of the passenger pigeon, for instance they did not allow the cutting of any tree a “chief” pigeon nested in [4]. Chief Pokagon of the Potawatomi tribe credits strategies such as this for not only allowing the pigeon to maintain its numbers but actually increasing them [1]. By thinking about the needs of the pigeons and adjusting behaviors to accommodate those needs rather than freely hunting them, the population was able to continue on as a reliable food resource for the tribes that used them.
Furthermore, the connection between the two species went beyond the typical predator and prey relationship. To many Indigenous people, the pigeons were not just food, they were a being. Passenger pigeons were included in the religion of some tribes through stories, song, and dance [1]. The Seneca believed that the pigeon gave its body to create their children. The passenger pigeon was so important to the Seneca that they termed albino ones “chief of all pigeons” and strictly forbade hunting them. The Cherokee and the Neutrals told similar stories of the bird as a guide to avoid starvation. The Seneca and the Iroquois opened their Maple Festival every year with a dance song about the bird. The Cherokee Green Corn Festival featured a dance mimicking a pigeon hawk in pursuit of a pigeon [4]. The pigeons held value in the lives of the people who benefited from them.
European Arrival
The Europeans recorded their first passenger pigeon on July 1, 1534 [1]. Right away, colonizers of every walk of life made note of the massive number of pigeons Indigenous people had maintained. The average European enjoyed the sight, “…I was perfectly amazed to behold the air filled and the sun obscured by millions of pigeons…” [1]. Many accounts told the narrative of an undiminishable population. Schorger, a professional ornithologist confirmed this notion, stating that “no other species of bird, to the best of our knowledge, ever approached the passenger pigeon in numbers” [1]. More ornithologists like Alexander Wilson took records, “In the autumn of 1813…I observed the pigeons flying from northeast to southwest, in greater numbers than I thought I had ever seen them before…The light of the noon day was obscured as by an eclipse” [5]. Even Leopold described them as a “biological storm” that used the resources of the land to their advantage [6].
While everyone knew the birds to be copious, not everyone understood the science behind it. Ornithologists knew that the pigeons could thrive because they had ample food and habitat when the Europeans arrived. However, for the vast majority of Europeans who were not trained in biology, the flock of birds blocking out the sky was frightening and unexplainable. This is where the genre began to separate itself from Indigenous peoples’ understanding of the bird. Europeans constructed urban legends in an effort to explain what was unknown to them. When only one acorn was found in pigeons’ crop (food storage pouch), Europeans predicted death and sickness. The evidence they saw supported their beliefs, “It is a common observation in some parts of this state, that when the Pigeons continue with us all the winter, we shall have a sickly summer and autumn” [1].
Diminishing
As colonizers made themselves more at home in North America, they encroached on passenger pigeon habitat and depleted their numbers. The colonizers did not take wildlife management into consideration while hunting. Instead, they killed far more than they took and failed to leave young and nesting birds alone [1]. Extinction seemed entirely impossible, they did not see a need to ensure the next generation of pigeons could continue, it was understood as a given. To compound this, the birds were generally not thought of highly in European cultures. The passenger pigeon was merely a thing to exploit rather than a being to feel for. They began to disappear from the places humans occupied, retreating into what wilderness remained [3].
People began to notice that the passenger pigeon populations were fading. Some states, like Ohio, actively avoided policies to protect the species, claiming “the passenger pigeon needs no protection. Wonderfully prolific, having the vast forests of the North as its breeding grounds, travelling hundreds of miles in search of food, it is here to-day, and elsewhere to-morrow, and no ordinary destruction can lessen them or be missed from the myriad that are yearly produced” [1]. Other states, particularly Wisconsin, wrote laws to protect the species: “It shall be unlawful for any person or persons to use any gun or guns or firearms, or in any manner to main, kill, destroy, or disturb any wild pigeon or pigeons at or within three miles of the place or places where they are gathered for the purpose of brooding their young, known as pigeon nestings”. Laws along these lines were enacted in several states but no efforts were made to actually enforce them. Much of this was due to pushback by settlers to the laws. Farmers in particular protested any enforcement, worrying that allowing the pigeons to thrive would mean crop destruction [1]. To them, the pigeons were pests to get rid of, not preserve.
Gone
The last passenger pigeon, named Martha, was a resident of the Cincinnati Zoo up until her passing on September 1, 1914. She was named after First Lady Martha Washington and was housed with her companion named George. The pair never produced fertile eggs, the zoo’s captive breeding effort was too late to save the population [1]. The end of the species “removed more individual birds than did all the other 129 [previously recorded bird] extinctions put together”. They went extinct because of introduced species, chains of extinction, overexploitation, and habitat loss—all four of these were human-driven factors. Captive breeding, regulating hunting, and habitat protection could have saved them. However, these efforts were seldom made and not done early enough in the population’s decline [3]. The passenger pigeon was lost because of the genre Europeans created for it during the time it was still around.
The majority of non-indigenous Americans only appreciated the passenger pigeon and shifted their genre once they were no longer around. People now found a soft spot for the birds in their memories, “Alas, the pigeons and the frosty morning hunts and the delectable pigeon-pie are gone, no more return”. Artists incorporated these fond memories into their paintings, poems, and music. Monuments were erected around the United States inscribed with laments such as “this species became extinct through the avarice and thoughtlessness of Man” and “the conservationist’s voice was heard too late” [3]. People regretted the fact that future generations would not get to see the bird in the sky so they attempted to etch the passenger pigeon into everyone’s minds [6].
Making an effort to remember the passenger pigeon is important because the species’ story functions as a lesson and a guide for the future. However, in the past decade, the passenger pigeon is being forgotten. Many high school students are not taught about the population’s time on Earth and why they are now gone, as shown by a case study in Pennsylvania [7]. If people are no longer talking about it then the same mistake will be made again. At the same time, there are also organizations, like the Project Passenger Pigeon founded in 2014, working to tell the parable “through a documentary film, a new book, their website, social media, curricula, and a wide range of exhibits and programming for people of all ages” [8]. However, a small group of thoughtful individuals will not be enough to save the next species from human destruction if the story of the passenger pigeon does not make it into enough of the right hands.
Experiment
Over the period of one month during March 2019, I surveyed teenagers regarding their passenger pigeon knowledge. At the time of the survey, the teenagers were high school or college students in the United States. The overall purpose of my survey was to investigate if young people are talking about the passenger pigeon in contemporary society. Of the fifty-one responses, three (6%) subjects spoke about the passenger pigeon accurately. Furthermore, eight (16%) subjects believed to know the true story of the passenger pigeon, all of those eight falsely stated that the passenger pigeon was used to carry messages. Eight (16%) subjects even claimed to have seen a live passenger pigeon since 2000.
My survey found that very few teenagers have heard the parable of the passenger pigeon’s extinction. This group of people has gone through a large amount of schooling in their lives so far without being taught about the passenger pigeon despite its intertwining with significant historical events. The convenient fact about passenger pigeons is that they feel familiar to people since most have seen today’s common pigeon, the rock dove. It is easy for the uninitiated to imagine what a passenger pigeon was like based off of what they know about rock doves. The parable of the passenger pigeons can be taught in any classroom—science, history, art, and more.
The experiment shows that the genre is not being passed on. This is exactly why the way contemporary society talks about this species and its genre matters. Education that advocates for proper wildlife management and policy is the key to saving species from extinction.
Conclusion
The passenger pigeon species went from the world’s largest bird population to complete extinction, due to mistreatment from European colonizers. My survey of high school teenagers shows that people are not learning from this parable. This species makes itself an ideal candidate because of the rapid severity of its decline. It is increasingly important that we care about our environment before it is too late to take action. The clock is ticking, the passenger pigeon told us so. If we can learn to mourn a bird we never met, we will not have the opportunity to mourn the birds we know.
Works Cited
- Schorger, A.W. The Passenger Pigeon: Its Natural History and Extinction. Wisconsin, University of Wisconsin Press, 1955.
- Dirk, Kerry. “Navigating Genres”. Writing Spaces: Readings on Writing, edited by Charles Lowe and Pavel Zemliansky, vol. 1, Parlor Press, 2010.
- Avery, Mark. A Message from Martha. London, Bloomsbury Publishing, 2014.
- Greenberg, Joel. A Feathered River Across the Sky: The Passenger Pigeon’s Flight to Extinction. New York, Bloomsbury USA, 2014.
- Wilson, Alexander. Wilson’s American Ornithology. Boston, Otis Broader and Company, 1853.
- Leopold, Aldo. A Sand County Almanac. New York, Oxford University Press, 1954.
- Soll, David. “Resurrecting the Story of the Passenger Pigeon in Pennsylvania.” Pennsylvania History: A Journal of Mid-Atlantic Studies, vol. 79, no. 4, 2012, pp. 507–519. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/pennhistory.79.4.0507.
- Project Passenger Pigeon. The Chicago Academy of Sciences and its Peggy Notebaert Nature Museum, 2012, passengerpigeon.org. Accessed 19 February 2019.
Watercolor Bird Series
By Daphne Crum, Genetics & Genomics ’23
In this bird series I have painted a Northern Cardinal (Cardinalis cardinalis), a Song Sparrow (Melospiza melodia), and a Pine Warbler (Setophaga pinus). These three birds were painted as gifts for members of my family, each one personalized to match the region of the U.S. where they live. While I have yet to narrow down my all-time favorite species, all birds collectively make the top of my favorite-animals list. I have been keeping a life list for bird-watching since I was in 8th grade, with 80 species and counting! There is something so unexplainably whimsical about birds that has captivated me for as long as I can remember. Birds have stolen our hearts for hundreds of years, inspiring artists and scientists alike with their power of flight, their feather variety, their intricate language of chirps and song, and their differing social dynamics. Capturing the vivacity that birds emanate is a huge challenge for me when it comes to finding the perfect medium to paint or draw in, the angles at which to position the birds in my art, and the body language that should be portrayed. I am inspired by artists who can successfully capture a bird’s personality through their work, and I strive to do the same.
Yosemite Valley
By Ryan Lazzareschi, Computer Science ’21
At the end of the tunnel, I saw an opportunity I couldn’t miss. As the sun rose in the distance, the perfect composition of Yosemite Valley presented itself. The granite cliffs of El Capitan stretch thousands of feet down on the left with Bridalveil Falls set against the Cathedral Rocks on the right, and Half Dome barely peeking through off in the distance covered with a layer of snow.
Lower Yosemite Falls
By Ryan Lazzareschi, Computer Science ’21
Taking inspiration from the timeless black and white style of Ansel Adams, Yosemite Falls exemplifies the true beauty of Mother Nature. Lower Yosemite Falls as pictured (above, below, etc), comes crashing down 320 feet, making up only a fraction of the 2400 foot Yosemite Falls.
Yosemite Toad Painting
By Daphne Crum, Genetics & Genomics ’23
This piece is a watercolor painting depicting a Yosemite Toad. When I first arrived in Davis I knew I wanted to find clubs and organizations that would provide opportunities for me to do a bit of scientific illustration. When I became a member of the Society for Conservation Biology Chapter at UC Davis, I was ecstatic to learn that their Education and Outreach Committee was already looking for artists in the community to provide visuals for their video about Dr. Leslie Roche and her research on the Yosemite Toad (Anaxyrus canorus). I was more than happy to spend a weekend during the 2019 Fall Quarter to paint and submit a piece for their project! Watercolors are a great medium to use for painting animals because you can layer with varying color intensities to illustrate different textures in their skin. Being able to artistically interpret the significance of scientific research is something I have always wanted to dive into, and it would be such an honor to continue working with other lab groups and researchers on campus who are in need of hand-drawn or hand-painted visuals to pair with their publications.
Parity
By Emily Donnelly, Neurobiology, Physiology, and Behavior, ’21
Macro image of a brightly colored flower in the Arboretum of UC Davis main campus
This photograph is unique for many reasons including the fact that it was taken here on the UC Davis campus in a flower garden by the Environmental Horticulture buildings. This was originally taken for a photography class here at Davis: SAS 40, which focuses on bridging science and art and emphasizes the balance of chaos and order seen in nature. This particular flower captured my attention because even though it is asymmetric, to the human eye it looks perfect. The intense reds and full body of the flower reflect the natural beauty that often goes unappreciated in nature. While photographing, I framed the image in such a way that the center position of the flower draws you into it. A full blossoming flower such as this often symbolizes growth and prosperity which is something that so many students and people alike strive for. So although this is just an image of a flower, it has deeper symbolic meanings depending on the viewer.
This image was taken April 12, 2018 here at UC Davis.
The camera used is a Canon 60D with an 18-200mm lens.
Natural Beauty
By Emily Donnelly, Neurobiology, Physiology, and Behavior, ’21
View of Yosemite’s famous Half Dome from Glacier Point
This spectacular image was taken from the ledge of Glacier Point trail in Yosemite National Park, overlooking the iconic 8,844 foot tall half-dome granite rock, which is such a historical and symbolic part of this natural landscape. The rugged rock formations that make this terrain so beautiful were formed 65 million years ago and then were shaped by glaciers that moved through the landscape, creating the sheer rock faces and wide valleys and lakes that we see today. I chose to take this photograph in black and grey rather than color to allow the natural textures and composition of nature to be delicately exposed. This allows the viewer to focus on the details of nature and true depth of the image, however a camera lens comes nowhere near close to capturing the true beauty of this breathtaking landmark.
This was taken August 19, 2019 when I went to visit Yosemite for the first time with my family. The camera used is a Canon 60D with an 18-200mm lens.
In the future I hope to visit Yosemite many more times as it is truly the most beautiful place I have been.